Temples of Abu Simbel

Temples of Abu Simbel

Among the most prominent monumental structures from ancient Egypt are the two rock-cut temples of Abu Simbel. They date from the reign of Pharaoh Ramses the Great (Ramses II User-Maat-Re, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty, 13th century BC). The rock-cut temples are the largest of their kind in all of Egypt.

Abu Simbel lies approximately 280 km south of Aswan and about 40 km north of the Sudanese border. Due to its relatively long distance from the nearest major city, a small town has developed near the temples, largely dependent on tourism. Restaurants, hotels, and souvenir shops are the main sources of income for the residents. Another important local employer is the small airport. Since the journey by bus from Aswan takes three to four hours through the desert, and Nile cruise ships cannot reach Abu Simbel because of the Aswan High Dam, an airport was built specifically for tourists. Visitors, mostly arriving from Aswan or Luxor, land there to spend a day visiting the temple complex. Most visitors arrive and depart on the same day. There are also a few small ferries and boats with special licenses that offer cruises on Lake Nasser, which also include a stop at Abu Simbel. Because of the proximity to the Sudanese border and the airport, there is a relatively high presence of security forces in the town.

The rock-cut temple complex of Abu Simbel is among the largest temple sites in Nubia. Geographically, Nubia refers to the region and the stretch of the Nile between Aswan in the north and Khartoum in the south. There are two rock-cut temples: a small one and a large one. The large temple was dedicated to the worship of the divine Pharaoh Ramses II, along with the three major state deities: Ptah of Memphis, Amun-Re of Thebes, and Re-Horakhty of Heliopolis. These deities are also associated with the three most important temple institutions of the Ramesside period. Similar to the mortuary temples of the kings in Thebes/Luxor, the worship of the pharaoh at Abu Simbel is intertwined with the cults of the gods. The other, smaller of the two temples is dedicated to the royal wife, Nefertari.

Discovery story of Abu Simbel

Because of its remote southern location in Nubia, the temples of Abu Simbel remained largely unknown to European travelers for centuries after the end of the Roman and Byzantine eras. Europeans rarely ventured up the Nile as far as Nubia. Even the scholars who accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte's French expedition to Egypt from 1798 to 1799, tasked with documenting the antiquities of Egypt, did not travel far enough south to encounter Abu Simbel.

The first European to rediscover the temple was the Swiss scholar and adventurer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt (Jean Louis Burckhardt, 1784–1817), who, disguised as an Oriental under the pseudonym Sheikh Ibrahim, undertook a multi-year expedition through the Near East and North Africa. When Burckhardt saw the temple of Abu Simbel in 1813, part of its facade was buried by a large sand dune. The entrance was blocked and inaccessible. Finally, in 1817, the adventurer and amateur archaeologist Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778–1823) arrived at Abu Simbel. He had the entrance cleared and gained access to the interior of the temple. The first more detailed scientific records were made in 1828 by Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832), the famous decipherer of hieroglyphs, and in 1844 by Karl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884), the founder of German Egyptology. The rock temples of Abu Simbel were brought to the attention of the European public in all their splendor and grandeur through the drawings, color lithographs, and oil paintings of the English artist David Roberts (1796–1864), who traveled to the land of the Nile from 1838 to 1839. His impressive images have since illustrated numerous books and postcards. The way in which the rock temples blend into the picturesque Nile and desert landscape, and the mysterious aura of the colossal monumental statues, made Abu Simbel a symbol of mystical ancient Egypt. Another prominent traveler to the Orient who visited Abu Simbel as early as 1837 was Hermann, Prince of Pückler-Muskau (1785–1871). He, too, dedicated a detailed description to Abu Simbel in his travel memoirs, which were published as a book. By the end of the 19th century, Abu Simbel had become well-known enough to be included in the itineraries of many European tourists visiting Egypt. Today, Abu Simbel, along with the pyramids and the Sphinx of Giza, is one of the most famous postcard images of ancient Egyptian architecture and has served as a backdrop for numerous film scenes.

Relocation of the rock temples of Abu Simbel

The construction of the Aswan High Dam resulted in the damming of the Nile, creating a vast lake. Lake Nasser was intended to provide Egypt with a never-ending reservoir of fresh water. However, the Nubians, who lived in this region, paid the price. Hundreds of villages with their gardens and fields had to be relocated. The numerous ancient temple complexes, almost all of which stood along the banks of the Nile, were also in danger. The rock temples of Abu Simbel were the most internationally renowned and served as a catalyst for convincing the world of the importance of the Nubian temples. Finally, under the auspices and with the financial support of UNESCO, a rescue operation was undertaken. The temples were to be dismantled, dismantled, and rebuilt 180 meters inland at a location approximately 65 meters higher.

After lengthy planning, construction began in 1963. Numerous companies from several countries were involved in the project. The German construction company Hochtief from Essen was in charge of project management. First, a cofferdam with sheet piling was built to protect the temple from the rising water level of Lake Nasser. Large sections of the surrounding rock were removed to expose the actual temple area. Then, the large and small rock temples of Abu Simbel were dismantled into individual, transportable blocks, which were then registered and cataloged. Particular care had to be taken when sawing the monumental statues and wall reliefs to ensure they could be reassembled almost seamlessly later. The heaviest blocks weighed around 30 tons. Most, however, were smaller, weighing between 12 and 20 tons. After the individual components were assembled and rebuilt in the new location, the rear part of each of the two temples was covered with a massive concrete shell, which was then covered from the outside with rubble, so that the original and characteristic appearance of the sanctuaries as rock temples could be preserved.

The facade of the great rock temple of Abu Simbel

With its four colossal, roughly 20-meter-high monumental statues depicting Pharaoh Ramses II, the great rock-cut temple of Abu Simbel is one of the most impressive structures of ancient Egypt. While temples and chapels hewn into rock were not a new concept before the construction of Abu Simbel, the monumental scale of this complex remains unique to this day. During the temple's reconstruction, the four seated statues were restored to their original positions. For this reason, the statue to the left of the temple entrance, which had been damaged by an earthquake in antiquity, specifically during the lifetime of Ramses II in his 31st or 32nd year of reign, was not fully restored. The fallen torso lies on the ground, as it did originally. The statues depict the king wearing a royal headdress, surmounted by the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, with a uraeus serpent on his forehead and a ceremonial beard on his chin. Small figures of royal family members have been carved on the sides and between the legs of the monumental statues. All the figures face the eastern horizon, where the sun rises daily. On the temple terrace in front of the monumental statues stands a series of smaller figures, alternating between depictions of Pharaoh Ramses with a royal headdress and double crown, and images of the Horus falcon.

The temple facade is dominated by a frieze of baboons carved in relief. Baboons were considered particular sun worshippers because these animals make a great deal of noise at sunrise. Therefore, they are also depicted in the ancient Egyptian underworld books as greeters of the sun. Above the entrance, a relief figure is carved in a high niche, depicting the sun god Re-Horakhty with a falcon's head and a sun disk. In one hand, the figure holds a staff with a jackal's head, which can be read in Egyptian as "User" (meaning "strong"), and in the other hand, a staff in the form of the goddess Maat ("Truth, Justice, Harmony, etc."). Reading the two symbols together with the depicted god as a word combination yields the king's throne name: User-Maat-Re ("Strong is the truth of the sun god"). On the throne bases of the monumental statues in the entrance area, relief depictions of Nile gods and conquered foreign peoples can be seen.

The interior of the great rock temple of Abu Simbel

Through the entrance portal, one enters the interior of the complex. The first room is a hall measuring 17.7 by 16.5 meters, featuring eight Osiris pillars. Each of these standing figures is almost 10 meters high. All the figures bear the name of Ramses, thus representing the king as Osiris. Paintings depicting vultures are still preserved on the ceiling. On the northern side wall of the north wing of the three-aisled entrance hall are the famous relief scenes and descriptions of the Battle of Kadesh. Kadesh was a Syrian city on the Orontes River. There, the armies of the Egyptians and Hittites clashed. These relief scenes, along with those at Karnak and Medinet Habu, are among the most comprehensive and detailed depictions of battle from ancient Egypt. The Battle of Kadesh, in the fourth year of Ramses II's reign, was one of the most extraordinary historical events of its time. In Syria, two major Near Eastern powers clashed: the Anatolian Empire of the Indo-European Hittites and the Egyptian Empire of the pharaohs, whose imperial expansionist ambitions overlapped in the Syrian sphere, leading to conflict. The significance of these events is underscored by the fact that Ramses commissioned similar war accounts and battle scenes depicting the same event on the entrance pylon of the Luxor Temple, on the southern wall of the Karnak Temple, and in his mortuary temple in Thebes, the Ramsseum. Ramses' opponent was the Hittite king Muwatalli. Both rulers were personally present during the battle. The Egyptian side fielded approximately 20,000 soldiers, divided into four divisions. The Hittite force consisted of about 37,000 soldiers. Both sides also possessed strong chariot detachments. Ramses, leading the first division which had advanced as a vanguard and crossed the Orontes River, was ambushed. Only the timely intervention of another Egyptian force, which arrived late from the coastal region, freed the pharaoh from his predicament. The Egyptians then withdrew. This military defeat, however, was portrayed as a victory back home. Many Egyptian war accounts idealize Ramses II's role in the battle. His rescue from the enemy ambush is attributed to the personal intervention of the god Amun, whom the pharaoh is said to have invoked in his distress.

Many years after these events, diplomatic rapprochement took place between the two Middle Eastern powers, and in the 21st year of Ramses II's reign, the first historically recorded peace treaty in history was signed with the new Hittite king Hattushili III, as well as, in the 34th year of his reign, a diplomatic marriage took place between Ramses and a Hittite princess.

Now, let me briefly explain the sequence of depictions of the Battle of the Hittites on the north wall of the pillared hall. First, let's describe the lower register from left to right. We first see the departure of the Egyptian troops. Then comes a depiction of the Egyptian encampment, surrounded by a protective palisade of shields. Details of military camp life are visible, such as the feeding and tending of the chariot horses and the tents in the center of the camp. Next is a depiction of the king holding a war council with his high-ranking military officers. Below this scene, two traitors or enemy spies are shown being beaten by Egyptian guards. This is followed by a battle scene of the chariot cavalry. In the upper register, the further course of the battle is depicted from left to right. Largely in the center, Ramses II charges into the fray in his chariot. He is already surrounded by enemy Hittite chariots (recognizable by their three-man crews). Then, further to the right, follows a beautiful pictorial representation of the city of Kadesh. One can see the fortification walls and towers, as well as the city's defense troops. One can also see how the city is encircled by the Orontes River. Following the battle scenes, the pharaoh's triumph is depicted on the far right. The prisoners are presented, and the fallen are counted by their severed hands.

The south wall of the pillared hall depicts both religious and military scenes. From left to right, these are battle scenes against the Syrians (storming of a fortress), against the Libyans (battle scene), and a triumphal scene following the war against the Nubians.

Several side chambers branch off from the entrance hall with its magnificent Osiris pillars on both sides. These served as storerooms, treasuries for temple treasures, and storage chambers for offerings. Such storerooms had been common since the Old Kingdom.

Following the entrance hall on a straight axis is another hall with four pillars. The walls and pillars are decorated with reliefs. The depiction on the south wall of the hall, showing the processional barque of Amun-Re, is particularly impressive. Beyond the four-pillar hall is a smaller transverse hall. Here, one can see depictions of Ramses performing cultic rituals before various gods: Min, Horus, Khnum, Atum, Thoth, and Ptah.

The Sun Miracle of Abu Simbel in front of the rock temple of Ramses II

At the end of the temple axis lies the inner sanctuary. From the steps leading to the terrace to the back wall of the inner sanctuary, it is approximately 63 meters; measured from the threshold at the entrance portal, it is about 55 meters. On the back wall of the sanctuary is a group of four seated statues on a throne (from left to right): Ptah of Memphis, Amun-Re of Thebes, the deified Ramses, and Re-Horakhty of Heiliopolis. The temple was oriented at its new location according to the cardinal directions, just as it stood in its original position. From the entrance to the inner sanctuary, the temple is built strictly axially. On February 21st and October 21st, the equinoxes, the angle of the light is such that for a few minutes the rising morning sun shines directly onto the figures of the inner sanctuary. This is known as the famous Miracle of the Sun.

Outer grounds of the great temple of Abu Simbel

In front of the rock temple are two small side chapels, which are generally not open to visitors. The southern side chapel, measuring 6.5 by 4.5 meters, is hewn entirely into the rock. This chapel is dedicated to the worship of the god Thoth and may also have served as a birth chapel for the veneration of the divine pharaoh. The northern side chapel is not hewn from the rock but built of stone blocks. This chapel is a small sun shrine. Therefore, the roof was left open, giving the chapel the appearance of a small courtyard.

Numerous rock stelae with inscriptions and reliefs have been carved into the rocks surrounding the temple's facade. These stelae originate from and commemorate various high-ranking officials and viceroys of Nubia from the time of Ramses II and later. Some of the inscribed stelae have royal content, including an important rock inscription on the southern side of the temple's facade. This is the so-called Wedding Stele. The inscription recounts the aforementioned marriage of Ramses II to a Hittite princess. The text describes, among other things, the arrival of the Hittite princess with her royal retinue and rich dowry, the wedding preparations, and the marriage itself, which was intended to bring peace between the Hittite Empire and the land of the pharaohs.

The small rock temple of Abu Simbel

The smaller of the two rock-cut temples was dedicated to the wife of Ramses the Great, Queen Nofretari (also: Nefertari, also of the 19th Dynasty, around 1260 BC). It lies only about 150 meters north of the large main temple and, like the latter, is hewn into the bedrock. The temple is a combination of a ceremonial temple for the queen and a temple dedicated to the god Hathor. Such a structure dedicated to the worship of a queen consort is extremely rare and underscores the importance that Nofretari must have held at court. This is further confirmed by the size and magnificent decoration of her tomb in the Valley of the Queens in West Thebes.

The facade is gently sloping. It measures 12 by 28 meters. Six standing monumental figures, approximately 10 meters high, adorn the entrance front, three to the left and three to the right of the entrance portal. The four male figures are representations of the deified Ramses, while the two female figures depict Queen Nefertari as the embodiment of the goddess Hathor. The various small figures at the legs represent their children. The facade resembles the pylon of a freestanding temple. Originally, the upper edge of the facade was bordered by a cavetto molding, which, however, has broken away over time, except for a few remnants.

The entrance leads into a three-aisled hall with pillars. The six pillars are decorated on the side facing the aisle with reliefs, each depicting a hathorsistrum, a rattle-like instrument with the head of the goddess Hathor. Such instruments were used in sacred rituals to appease the goddess's wrath and placate her. The reliefs on the walls primarily depict sacrificial and ritual acts performed by the royal couple before the deities. On the entrance wall are scenes of ritual enemy slaying: Ramses II slays a captured Libyan in the presence of Re-Horakhty and a Nubian before the god Amun-Re.

Three passageways, one from each of the three naves of the pillared hall, lead to a transverse room with two unfinished side chambers. At the end of the temple axis is the sanctuary, the innermost sanctuary of the complex. In a niche on the rear wall, the remains of the destroyed figure of the Hathor cow are visible. It appears to emerge from the rock. Beneath its chin stands a figure of the king. The significance of this circular composition underscores Hathor's role as the protective goddess of kingship. The reliefs depict, among other things, Queen Nofretari offering incense before the goddesses Mut and Hathor. The king is also represented: he is burning incense before a statue of himself and his queen, Nofretari.